The breadth of writing is measured according to the pro­portion of the letter. For instance in the letter n we com­pare the distance between the two downstrokes with the length of the downstrokes themselves. If the downstrokes are longer than the distance between them, we have narrow writ­ing (Sample 12); if they are shorter, it is considered wide writing. (Sample 13.)

THE PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE FIRST PERSON SINGULAR

In the Anglo-Saxon language the graphologist must attach a great deal of importance to the capital I when it is used as the personal pronoun. English is the only language in which the personal pronoun of the first person singular, I, is written with a capital.

The capital I is an important factor for the interpretation of American handwriting. We are a people who know "I can be what I want to be." This subconscious realization of our personal freedom necessarily injects dramatic reality into the letter. In the capital I, its simplicity reflects modesty and degrees of refinement; exaggerated loops and artificial flourishes express ostentation. The aspects of the personal pronoun capital I are transferred from the character to the personality, whereas, in the other capitals the aspects are used to impress. The capital I when used as the personal pro­noun is a dominating indicator of what the writer thinks of himself, and the other capitals are indicators of what the writer wants the world to think of him or what he longs to be.

SOMETHING ABOUT THE CAPITALS

The capital letter is impressive. We attach a dignity to it by its size and design; it is formed purposely to impress. It makes its bow at the beginning of a sentence, it impresses you harmoniously or otherwise. It is the personal expression of what the man wants the world to think of him. In the modest capital the personal motive can be interpreted as a constructive one.

When we find a highly embellished capital, we realize that the writer longs to be someone he fears he cannot be. This actual limitation or his belief as to his own inferiority are immediately revealed. The would-be gentleman is impelled to make flourishes to impress the public. He has unsatisfied aspirations and imitates the elaborate capitals found in the scripts of those who have caught the attention of the public through their conquest or through their belief of divine in­heritance.

In exaggerated cases of the inflated ego the capital letter is enlarged and ornamented with flourishes in an hysterical attempt to attract attention. The inflated capital is the would-be gentleman's persona. It is the mask over a weak character or poor personality. The well-formed capital letter, in size and shape is also the persona of the writer, but of a gentleman who is genuine in his unmasked moments as well as when he is in social contact with the world. The under­sized capital indicates a lack of faith in self, and one's own ability.

In general, the capital letter can be judged as a constructive feature if it conforms to a moderate size with graceful forma­tions.

Opposite conclusions can be made if there is undue exaggeration and awkward formations.

Originality in the capital letters is often found in the writ­ing of creative artists.

Ornate capitals cannot be criticized in the Latin races; their expression is more lively than that of the Anglo-Saxon.

The Englishman's code of behavior is restrained; he modi­fies his capitals. When exaggeration of capitals occurs in the handwriting of an English person, a parallel trait can be found in the character or personality.

In the American script we cannot be too severe in our judgment of moderately exaggerated capitals used by the aggressive business man.

The initial and final strokes also have their value and it is justifiable to note their presence, especially if they repeat themselves throughout the writing. When there is a repeti­tion of conspicuous or conventional strokes, the graphologist should try to uncover the reason. Marked repetition of in­itial and final strokes usually is a sign of some deep rooted cause or oddity; the source is usually negative and the cause should be uncovered and corrected.

STUDY IN NUMBERS

Let us deal here with numbers as a symbol of material values. As such they are expressive of the emotional and im­pulsive attitude of the writer towards material values. Very often a talent, or a lack of talent, for monetary matters shows itself much more clearly in the shaping of numbers than in that of words.

Sample 19 shows a writer with a characteristic talent for monetary matters. The numbers are smoothly written, and display certainty of aim, nimbleness and experience. The essential nature of the shape is grasped and presented in a precise, clear, and simple manner; the tempo is quick, the legibility good. We deduce from this that the writer is a reliable and quick reckoner, talented for monetary matters, and that his attitude towards material values is reasonable.

In contrast to this writer, we find a group of people who for some reason or other are ungifted for monetary matters. An illustration of this type will be found in Sample 20, which is characterized by clumsily and awkwardly drawn numbers in an otherwise fluent handwriting. This writer, generally intelligent and gifted, is reduced to helplessness the moment he has to tackle numbers. He is unable to calculate without effort and makes mistakes in the most simple prob­lem. It is his number-writing which shows that he is a poor reckoner, and that he has no understanding of the concept of numbers.

Sometimes, however, the desire to accumulate earthly treas­ures is shown in numbers. Sample 21 gives evidence of extremely full numbers, which are very skillfully executed, written with libidinous pressure, and they are extremely large. The nimbleness of execution indicates a good reck­oner; the fullness, the pressure, and the size of numbers, together with very large and inflated lower loops, betray the extremely strong libido, the powerful wish-fantasy and the insatiable greed which characterize the number conception of the writer. He is an excessive spender and will not stop at criminal acts in order to satisfy his sensuous aspirations.

From these examples we may infer that number writing is expressive of the talent as well as of the behavior of the writer in monetary and financial matters, and that in certain cases numbers can be psychologically more revealing than words.

STUDY IN MARGINS

When the margin on both sides is in proportion to the width of paper and size in writing we may conclude that the writer has a proper regard for neatness and order, accom­panied by good taste, sense of proportion and balance and poise. (Sample 1.)

If the margins on both sides are too narrow (Sample 6), or even missing entirely, an evident lack of good taste is mani­fested. There also will be a confirmation of thrift, or even of miserliness, according to the evidence of the crowded line and other ruling characteristics revealed in the script itself.

Sometimes the margin on the left side is wide in propor­tion to the width of paper and size of writing. This generally indicates an instinct or desire for originality. (Sample 64.)

When the margin on the right hand side is absurdly wide in proportion to width of paper and size of writing, it is con­clusive that the writer is either wasteful and extravagant, or has grandiose ideas with much immoderation in gratifying them. Such writers, if impulsiveness is evident, will blindly go to extremes. There are exceptions to this rule, of course, but they will be readily recognized. (Sample 24.)

Of relatively little significance is the upper margin. If it is extremely large, it almost always is a sign of great respect to the addressee. This form of margin is mostly used in con­ventional letters.

The lower margin may be missing entirely and the writing may be crowded to the bottom of the page, leaving no room for a lower margin. This is not regarded as a negative trait because of necessity.

If, however, the lower margin corresponds with the good taste of the side and upper margin, we recognize the culture of the writer.

In considering margins it will be well to observe carefully the address of the envelope. Addresses which are in harmony with the writing will generally be found to confirm signs of proportion and good taste, culture, breeding and artistic sense, and will be found to coincide with the margin in the writing itself. Envelope addresses are very important; first they carry several capital letters revealing important truths, and secondly they express the writer's attitude toward public and social life.

The purpose of an address is that the letter should reach the addressee without any difficulty. This purpose is only served by a high degree of legibility and clearness of the writing and its arrangement. Accordingly, many people do write more legibly on the envelope than in the letter itself. (Sample 19.)

A case of illegibility on an envelope signifies psychological difficulties in a writer to observe conventional considerations. It indicates a special disturbance in regard to adaptation which is characteristic of people who are difficult in personal as well as social intercourse. (Sample 110.)

SIGNATURES

The signature is the writer's social ego. From it we can infer his attitude towards social and public life, and how he displays his personality.

Psychologically revealing are divergencies between signa­ture and writing, regarding the size of handwriting, which may be large or small in comparison with the body of the writing.

In the case of a larger signature with otherwise smaller handwriting as in Sample 69, the writer wants to overempha­size himself; perhaps a certain lack of self-reliance prompts him to be impressive. One fact seems sure, the higher the degree of individuation in a person, the less he is prone to make himself dependent upon public opinion, a dependence which finds expression in the divergence of size between the signature and the writing, or in some kind of flourish. Un­derscoring as in Sample 11, comes under this heading also.

In dealing with this feature we have to take into consider­ation at which period a document was written (signature of Goethe), as well as national differences. Writers of Latin nationalities often adorn their signatures to a degree of com­plete illegibility.

The signature to a certain extent is a mere facade, espe­cially in handwritings of people who appear in public. If adorned with many flourishes, or underscored, this gives great importance to the writer's mental attitude concerning himself. (Sample 49.) This signature can be modelled in dif­ferent ways; in some cases it impresses as a pose in a theatrical act; in others, however, it pictures the writer's self-conscious and timid personality.

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