Today it would be difficult to deny that the individual's mind can influence his actions. If the actions are no more than the mind's tools, we can find ways to develop and im­prove them. No one, born with a certain standard of intelli­gence, need remain irredeemably bound to that standard all his life; methods can be found to make the intelligence better equipped to deal with life.

A mind which has lost or misdirected its goal, which is, for instance, undeveloped in an ability to cooperate, will fail to exercise a helpful influence on the growth of the personal­ity. For this reason we find that many who, as children, lacked cooperativeness, reveal in their maturity a poorly de­veloped intelligence and a lack of normal social understand­ing.

Many psychologists have pointed out the consistent rela­tionship between the mind and the body. None of them, however, has attempted to discover the actual bridge between the two.

We must never try to diagnose one symptom alone or a single manifestation of abnormality; we must rather study the symptoms in their entirety and from them discover the underlying fault. In this way we can see the basic error be­hind the way in which the mind has interpreted its experi­ence, its channeling of life's potentialities, and its reactions to impressions received. This must be the real task of psy­chology. Psychotic states are not incurable if the necessary interest in others can be aroused before it is too late; but all this places a wider distance between the individual and the normal world than any other condition, except perhaps, the act of committing suicide. It is an intricate art to cure such cases and an extremely difficult one. We must win the patient back to a cooperative state, and we can only do this through great patience and the kindest and most understanding manner.

Now let us consider the various mental diseases and the way in which they change the character and behavior of the individual.

Certain types of schizophrenia detach themselves from all outward influences, and lead a wily and self-centered life, attaching importance to nothing but their own poor ego. The neurotic too is mostly concerned with himself, but at times will also take an interest in the life around him. The truly psychotic, however, eventually withdraws completely into himself, becomes indifferent to any external stimulus, and is wholly insensible to everything that happens around or even to himself. His egocentricity consists of a detachment from the world and a resulting and complete isolation.

In comparing the handwriting of psychotics with that of their earlier and saner lives, we can observe an increased ri­gidity and monotony, and an impoverishment of forms. The egocentricity of the psychotic does not only manifest itself in involved traits (although fixed and delirious ideas are ex­pressed in involved and futile large backward flourishes), but the increased tendency towards total isolation is mainly mir­rored in increasingly static traits and senseless disconnections, which eventually lose any sign of vivacity, speed, or harmoni-ousness.

Graphic rigidity, therefore, is a symbol of the writer's lack of impressionability, showing him to be insensible to all the variety and rich experiences of the outward world. Just as the mind of the psychotic has no participation in all the fer­tile influences of this world, his handwriting reflects a similar rigidity and impoverishment of forms. We observe childish letter formation in the handwriting of the educated adult psy­chotic which reverts to the archaic forms of a remote state of civilization. (Sample 113.)

In the following handwritings we shall see graphic reflec­tions of the mentally diseased who isolate themselves from the world and live in a confused, fictitious life.

Dementia praecox or schizophrenia is the collective term for the three manifestations of the diseased mind: hebe-phrenia, catatonia, and paranoia.

The last is a mental disease in which delusions of grandeur and especially persecution play a dominant part. The indi­vidual feels that everyone, or one particular person at least, is set against him. Not only does he suspect that the world is antagonistic towards him, but he also believes that everyone is actually planning to harm, or even destroy, him.

A paranoiac condition may either develop gradually and imperceptibly from early life, or may appear without warn­ing in maturity. Usually, but not always, this results as a consequence of some critical occurrence in the individual's life. Becoming suspicious of what he believes to be evil in­tentions of those around him, he withdraws more and more from society, until he has completely retreated into his own delusions.

While the paranoiac's mind is lost in the labyrinth of one particular delusion, his faculties, except when they touch his special delusion, remain quite normal. A paranoiac may be obsessed with fixed and unwarranted suspicions about his business partner, for instance, and may yet be most logical and perceptive in all other respects. His memory is, as a rule, normal, his perception acute, and his judgment clear and ra­tional; it is only when his attention is directed towards his partner that he becomes irrational and abnormal. Paranoiacs usually develop some form of defense against their imagined persecutors. They may heap insults and violent reproaches upon an innocent and very surprised neighbor, and even in­jure him physically, as well. At times the paranoiacs who suspect the world at large, and respond aggressively to these suspicions, become very dangerous.

Sample 110. This handwriting illustrates clearly the fixed idea of persecution; this man draws unconsciously the por­trait of his business partner on an envelope addressed to the person in question.

Among paranoiacs we find quarrelsome people so inflexible in all their opinions that they are always ready to nag and argue at the slightest sign of disagreement.

Sample 111. This script uncovers another case of paranoia.

Since early childhood, this man has showed all the character­istics of the paranoiac nature; he was reserved, did not make friends with his school mates, and was totally uncooperative.

Though he is of only average intelligence, he succeeded in his business career through his great and pedantic sense of duty. He has always had a supersensitive memory. His affec­tion for his family, while genuine, was almost suspicious, and his distrust is mirrored in his very narrow angle. In Sample 112, we again see this writer's script, but we must notice how his unfavorable paranoiac disposition has developed into insanity. The angle, and in fact the whole writing, becomes more narrow, and is nearly squeezed together into unbroken lines of connected words, illustrating the severe delusions of persecution and his constant hallucinations. It is easy to see that his mind has become totally disrupted. He has now been in an asylum for many years without any sign of improve­ment.

Often delusions of grandeur rather than of persecution fill the mind of the paranoiac. He sees himself as an unques­tionably distinguished personage. Just as the paranoiac suf­fering from delusions of persecution sees the world bent on his destruction, so the paranoiac obsessed by his imaginary grandeur deludedly believes that he is revered and exalted in the eyes of the world. Paranoia, in fact, may manifest itself in an endless variety and confirmation of delusions.

Sample 113. This script reveals the delusions of grandeur in a woman of paranoiac disposition who is a gifted painter. She always thought and behaved in a fantastic manner and was unable to make any statement without confounding the facts with her own imaginings. She was never aware that she was even practicing any deception. She was also hysterical, protesting her great sympathy and tender-heartedness to everyone who would listen; in reality she was totally self-centered. She was never able to cooperate, detaching herself from all responsibilities. She had the fixed idea that her mission in life was to redeem the world. Though gifted as an artist, she lacked creative imagination and discipline, and was unable to concentrate her thoughts on her work.

The handwriting shows a disorder in which the formation of the letters is unclear. Her egocentricity and distorted at­titude are reflected in the loose, pressureless, and occasionally dramatically flourished letters.

While in paranoia the patient accuses all mankind, in mel­ancholia he accuses himself alone and suffers intensely from inordinate and fantastic self-reproaches. Melancholia is one of the mental disorders which are a great trial to all the people with whom the sufferer comes in contact. Melan­cholies are often inclined to punish themselves by committing suicide and must be closely watched at all times. In order to treat them conscientiously, the attending physician must be an especially well-trained psychologist, never contradict­ing them or letting them realize that he has made them change their minds or, in fact, doing anything to arouse their aggressive self-castigation.

Sample 114. This handwriting reveals a severe case of melancholia. The slow, hesitant, and rigid words and letters written with uneven and smeary pressure, reflect a deep state of depression. This woman will remain silent for weeks and even months, remaining frozen in a cataleptic state, uncon­scious of the passage of time, or even of her discomfort. The anxiety and fear which tormented her eventually drove her to attempt suicide. When she was frustrated she immediately made a second and equally unsuccessful attempt.

The entire psychological make-up and deterioration of the maniac (the insane person in the active period of manic-depression), as well as his writing characteristics, are entirely different from the preceding types. His expressions are lively and changeable caricatures of the faces he sees around him, his eyes dart about, and his movements are sudden and full of amazing energy. The maniac's whole drive is towards activity; he is restless and obstreperous and indefatigable.

Sample 115. In the handwriting of this educated and well-bred man we see delusions of grandeur which are due to a manic excitement. The ascending lines show that his opti­mism is at its height; enclosed in his dream world, he cannot conceive of the failure of any of his plans. Wide flourishes and dashing movements of the pen show the vivid flow of his abstruse ideas and extravagant imagination. A suddenly increasing pressure on single strokes discloses his excitement and excess of emotion. When he wrote this he was in the highest period of his elation.

Sample 115. This is written by the same person, but in a depressive period and in a somewhat more lucid state of mind which took place some months before the maniac attack. In comparing these two samples, we notice how the writing traits of the depressive period are enlarged in the maniac state and follow an accentuation parallel to that taken by the course of his disease.

Logical thinking among the psychotic is common rather than rare. But the logical faculty of a psychotic person is usu­ally of only slight advantage to him for either his reasons are based on a false premise or should they be correct, betray his insane condition when he attempts to apply his logic to a given situation.

The great split between the internal and external worlds between self and environment is observed in schizophrenia. In this disease, a weakening and distortion of the emotional life and the will-power take place long before the intellect is affected. We notice a strange change of character, lack of at­tention and cooperation, such weariness that work is impos­sible, and sudden extreme impulses which alternate with indolence.

In the progression of this malady, there may be a com­plete disinterest in the external world. There are schizo­phrenics who live for years in a hospital without expressing the least wish to see their relatives and friends and do not even pay any attention to the doctors and other patients. In the advanced stages of this disease—dementia praecox—there is almost no hope of curing the patient. The name of the disease itself means a pronounced and hopeless mental decay.

In schizophrenia we often find delusions of grandeur and persecution as well as erotic delirium. The fantasies of the schizophrenics, however, are not as systematically constructed as those of paranoiacs, but are less coherent and filled with absurd contradictions.

Sample 117. This script shows a grave case of schizophrenia in an advanced stage of the disease; that is to say, dementia praecox. This woman was a gifted writer and a student of the fine arts. Even in her early childhood she was asocial, isolating herself from companions and showing strongly pes­simistic tendencies. Her handwriting covers the page like a cobweb without any realization that there should be spacing between words and lines. As the flourishes encircle her words, her egocentric thoughts surround only herself. We see, through the uniquely formed letters, the evidence of her trained and able mind which however is, at this point, com­pletely lacking in any ability to reason.

Sample 119. This is the handwriting of a scientist who is afflicted with dementia praecox. This man is now obsessed with a religious delirium after having passed through a cata­tonic period. He continually prays for redemption from sins which he believes he has committed, assuming most uncom­fortable and distorted positions or sometimes kneeling for hours and even days. He is not aware of what happens around him and, as is typical of the cataleptic, has no realization that questions are being asked or food offered. His handwriting is completely unbalanced, bending to all sides like reeds shaken in the wind. His obsession is clearly symbolized in the small flower-like design in the margin opposite the fifth line. This sort of pattern is frequently used by the catatonic, symbolizing his encircled thoughts with its concentric circles.

Sample 118. This sample was written by a woman afflicted with syphilitic hallucinations. Some graceful and independ­ent letter formations reveal her educated and well-trained mind. This writer possesses artistic ability and was at one time a gifted writer. Her imagination, however, was always extravagant and incoherent.

Her writing shows many uncertain and trembling strokes and undulating lines. Her uncertain coordination and her inability to descend stairs safely or even to walk successfully are reflected in her awkward handling of the pen. She dis­plays difficulties in articulation, and her handwriting mirrors this defect in the jerky fashion with which she puts the words on paper.

This writing took place in a period of great mental excite­ment; her elation and even violence is disclosed in the heavy horizontal strokes. She is in very high spirits at this point and is most obstreperous, displaying no signs of fatigue. At its beginning, this script appears to be quite orderly, but little by little it becomes hurried, growing larger in its impatience, snowing the writer's confusion and absurd thoughts and im­pulses. She is talkative and her mind cannot produce any logical thoughts.

There are three states of mania: mild, acute, and delirious mania, the last being clearly described in Sample 118. It is incorrect to believe that the individual who suffers from a mild mania is necessarily abnormal. The peculiarities which the sufferer develops are not sufficiently pronounced to cause him to be classified as psychotic, or even unbalanced. His rational powers do not deteriorate. His comprehension, his reason, his judgment show no signs of impairment. In fact, his perception and attention show an increased alertness, and his temperament gains in vivaciousness. But this individual correspondingly develops a certain fickleness which he dis­plays in all his actions as well as in all his relationships. Even the most resolute and serious individual, when attacked by this neurosis, undergoes a complete transformation of his awareness. His seriousness gradually vanishes and is sup­planted by a certain degree of mutability. His ideas are no longer centered on one major goal and his activities become decentralized, although not necessarily disorganized. His in­terests in life, too, undergo a metamorphosis. Some things which he formerly regarded with indifference or even con­tempt now become objects of serious concern, and to them he devotes a great deal of his time.

Sample 120. This is the handwriting of a woman who is still active in the business world, although her changing moods and excitability make it hard for her associates to get on with her. She displays an intense craving for activity. However, this is not the activity of a person who is stimulated by a definite drive, but rather that which is instigated by an inner restlessness. Although the writing discloses a marked indolence revealed by the slowness of tempo, in this state she became exceedingly active. For instance, she writes many letters, often sending an unusual number to one person at short intervals, constantly repeating the same phrases or even duplicating the previous letters in their entirety. She became excessively impatient in her business dealings, feeling that her projects were progressing much too slowly.

In order to preserve peace one should agree with maniac types as much as is possible, for any disagreement arouses their irritability and provokes an avalanche of protests. We meet maniac types almost daily, and it is important to realize that their difficult attitudes stem from a neurotic disturbance, if one is to deal successfully with them.

The patient usually passes from simple to acute mania if treated mistakenly. Here, the tendency to indulge in exces­sive activity does not subside in the least, but the actions show an increasing lack of concentration and control. The indi­vidual may become actively destructive, even breaking furni­ture as a release.

The next stage into which he may pass is called delirious mania, of which Sample 119 was an example. The victim loses complete control over his thoughts, and hallucinations become more and more frequent, so that communication with the patient is, at this stage, practically impossible. The writer of Sample 119 suffers from auditory hallucinations and hears what he claims to be the voice of God. Such symptoms as this are continuously heard, starting in the early stages of the disease and continuing to the end.

There can be no doubt that the delusions of the insane would prove to have some meaning, if only we knew how to translate them. Clinical psychiatry troubles itself little about the actual form of the individual symptoms or the content of it. We cannot deny that the symptom itself has a meaning and is connected with experiences in the life of the patient.

The analysis of handwriting can be an invaluable clue if applied in a direction which we have tried to give with our examples. We can only assert, we cannot prove that it is so in every case. Graphology is a young science, and time and application will open a way for a better understanding of the delusions which torture the mind of the insane.

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